Projections by the Energy Information Agency and current Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) scenarios expect worldwide electric power demand to double from its current level of about 2 terawatts electrical power (TWe) to 4 TWe by 2030, and could reach 8-10 TWe by 2100. They also expect that for the next 30 to 50 years, the bulk of the demand of electricity production will be provided by fossil fuels, typically coal and natural gas. Coal supplies 41% of the world's electric energy today, and is expected to supply 45% by 2030. In addition, the most recent report from the IPCC has placed the likelihood that man-made sources of CO2 emissions into the atmosphere are having a significant effect on the climate of planet earth at 90%. “Business as usual” baseline scenarios show that CO2 emissions could be almost two and a half times the current level by 2050. More than ever before, new technologies and alternative sources of energy are essential to meet the increasing energy demand in both the developed and the developing worlds, while attempting to stabilize and reduce the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere and mitigate the concomitant climate change.
Nuclear energy, a non-carbon emitting energy source, has been a key component of the world's energy production since the 1950's, and currently accounts for about 16% of the world's electricity production, a fraction that could—in principle—be increased. Several factors, however, make its long-term sustainability difficult. These concerns include the risk of proliferation of nuclear materials and technologies resulting from the nuclear fuel cycle; the generation of long-lived radioactive nuclear waste requiring burial in deep geological repositories; the current reliance on the once through, open nuclear fuel cycle; and the availability of low cost, low carbon footprint uranium ore. In the United States alone, nuclear reactors have already generated more than 55,000 metric tons (MT) of spent nuclear fuel (SNF). In the near future, we will have enough spent nuclear fuel to fill the Yucca Mountain geological waste repository to its legislated limit of 70,000 MT.
Fusion is an attractive energy option for future power generation, with two main approaches to fusion power plants now being developed. In a first approach, Inertial Confinement Fusion (ICF) uses lasers, heavy ion beams, or pulsed power to rapidly compress capsules containing a mixture of deuterium (D) and tritium (T). As the capsule radius decreases and the DT gas density and temperature increase, DT fusion reactions are initiated in a small spot in the center of the compressed capsule. These DT fusion reactions generate both alpha particles and 14.1 MeV neutrons. A fusion burn front propagates from the spot, generating significant energy gain. A second approach, Magnetic fusion energy (MFE) uses powerful magnetic fields to confine a DT plasma and to generate the conditions required to sustain a burning plasma and generate energy gain.
Important technology for ICF is being developed primarily at the National Ignition Facility (NIF) at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), assignee of this invention, in Livermore, Calif. There, a laser-based inertial confinement fusion project designed to achieve thermonuclear fusion ignition and burn utilizes laser energies of 1 to 1.3 MJ. Fusion yields of the order of 10 to 20 MJ are expected. Fusion yields in excess of 200 MJ are expected to be required in central hot spot fusion geometry if fusion technology, by itself, were to be used for cost effective power generation. Thus, significant technical challenges remain to achieve an economy powered by pure inertial confinement fusion energy.
Both refractive optical elements and reflective optical elements are widely used in laser systems to control the divergence of the laser beam (e.g., using lenses to focus the laser beam to a spot) or direct laser beams by changing the direction of propagation (e.g., using mirrors). Optical damage of optical components (i.e., laser induced damage) is a problem experienced during the operation of high power and/or intensity lasers. Damage can be manifested by failure of the material at laser fluences far below the intrinsic breakdown threshold of the materials, for example, at laser fluences one order of magnitude or more below the intrinsic breakdown threshold. Therefore, despite progress made in the reliability of high power laser systems, there is a need in the art for methods and systems to improve the laser induced damage thresholds of high power optical components and elements.